Eventually the general public benefited from the growth of these private libraries. For example, in 1661 Cardinal Jules Mazarin opened his eclectic collection of 25,000 volumes "to everybody without exception." In doing so, he created a model for French libraries against which others were measured. Within a century France had 50 towns with public libraries. Although some libraries suffered significant losses in the French Revolution , most eventually emerged as stronger institutions. After King Louis XVI was deposed in 1792, the new French Republic established several national libraries in Paris. Among these was the Bibliothèque Nationale (now known as the Bibliothèque Nationale de France), which was founded in 1795 with the collections of the royal library, the Bibliothèque du Roi . By the mid-19th century, newly established public libraries began providing entertainment literature to the general population. About the same time, France also witnessed the creation of school libraries; however, public and school libraries did not develop into a widespread system until the mid-20th century. Increased literacy in 18th-century England led to the rise of a new reading public willing and able to pay for multiple types of reading materials. Circulating libraries, including the popular Mudie's Select Library in London, were commercial enterprises that rented books to customers. Also known as commercial lending libraries, circulating libraries offered collections of popular materials such as biographies, travel narratives, and novels. Most issued a catalog that customers used to make their selections. Circulating libraries radically transformed library services by welcoming women as reading patrons for the first time in library history. The patronage of women significantly contributed to the popularity of the circulating library. These libraries were popular well into the 19th century. The subscription library addressed another type of reading interest. In these libraries several people pooled their capital to purchase a collection of books to which all shareholders had access. The collections of subscription libraries tended to include mostly secular works of nonfiction, and they focused especially on works identified with the 18th-century philosophical movement known as the Enlightenment. The first public library in England opened in Manchester in 1852, and others rapidly spread throughout the country. In 1883 American steel magnate and philanthropist Andrew Carnegie began providing funds for the establishment of public libraries in England. With this infusion of money, an average of 16 public libraries were built in England each year. By 1918 half of all library authorities in England had received Carnegie money for the construction of buildings. Various private organizations and learned societies established special libraries in England, such as the library of the Society of Apothecaries or the library of The Royal Society . Other British libraries benefited from government support. For example, by the mid-19th century legal deposit laws entitled the library of the British Museum to receive copies of every work registered for copyright in England. These laws, coupled with new public funds, allowed the library to accelerate its growth into the British Library, which today has one of the greatest collections in the world. G4Elsewhere in Europe In Austria, more than 100 monastery libraries established during the Middle Ages had been transformed into court libraries and eventually into state-supported public libraries by the 18th century. Libraries fared much worse in Poland. Many libraries there were destroyed by Catholic zealots during the Counter Reformation, an anti-Protestant movement of the 16th and 17th centuries. In addition, Swedish armies destroyed libraries in the Polish cities of Kraków, Warsaw, and others during the 17th century. Finally, between 1795 and 1918 invading Russian and German armies stole freely from Polish collections as they advanced and retreated in wars fought over Polish territory. Poland was unable to establish a national library until 1928, long after most other European countries had founded national libraries. The earliest Russian libraries were established by cathedrals and monasteries as early as the 11th century. By the 18th century a few wealthy Russians had also amassed large book collections. Russian tsar Peter the Great founded the country's first research library, at the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1724. During the late 18th century Empress Catherine the Great expanded Russia's library holdings by increasing the size of many existing collections and by establishing several new state-supported libraries. By the end of the 19th century several Russian libraries housed multimillion-volume collections, including the Imperial Public Library (now the National Library of Russia) in Saint Petersburg. After the Russian Revolution in 1917, numerous academic, research, and public libraries developed throughout the various republics of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. HEurope in the Early 20th Century By the early 20th century librarianship in Europe had emerged as a distinct profession, and a wide range of library services were in place. National libraries regularly received copies of all books printed in their country as a condition of copyright protection for authors. Well-stocked and efficient university libraries served the academic needs of students and scholars. Public libraries provided recreational and instructional material for patrons in most urban communities. Newly founded special libraries also made up-to-date information available on science and business. However, European library development remained uneven, especially in eastern and southern Europe. Libraries there continued to receive inadequate support and the public had difficulty getting access to books and library services. Many European countries escaped the damage of World War I , but World War II had a profound effect on hundreds of libraries. Public libraries in large English cities such as Bristol, Liverpool, Birmingham, and Manchester suffered great losses, and libraries in smaller cities lost some or all of their collections.
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